Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences

Fifty years of Fiske, 50 years of hits

Rachel Sauer — Tue, 30 Sep 2025 00:23:24 +0000

Fifty years of Fiske, 50 years of hits Rachel Sauer Mon, 09/29/2025 - 18:23

Alexandra Phelps

Love the music and laser shows at Fiske? They’re the work of a dedicated team of students led by ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ astronomy alumnus Jeremy Osowski

When looking at over 50 years of music hits, how would you narrow down the list to only 15 songs? This difficult question led to the creation of Fiske Planetarium’s 50th anniversary music show, which debuted Friday.

Fiske Planetarium is kicking off its 50th anniversary, and what better way to celebrate than with some historical hits? “Flashback at Fiske,” a music and laser show that combines the iconic music of the previous five decades and space, will leave people walking out with the line between science and art blurred, say its creators.

The man behind the lasers

Jeremy Osowski is a ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ astronomy graduate, Fiske Planetarium music show lead and visual arts specialist.

The man behind the show is Jeremy Osowski, a University of Colorado Boulder astronomy graduate, Fiske Planetarium music show lead and visual arts specialist.

Osowski began at ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ in the aerospace engineering program. However, after taking some time to consider his interests, he decided to study astronomy. During his undergraduate studies, he worked at Noodles & Company and was offered the position of assistant general manager. Needing the weekend to consider the offer, he attended a show at Fiske Planetarium and realized that students were the ones running the show.

Equipped with no experience, he walked into the planetarium the next day and asked about a job. Initially, he was told that he could scan tickets and sweep floors. Osowski remembers thinking, “‘That sounds like a good gig to me.’ For the first two years I was an usher, scanning tickets, doing odds-and-ends things. Being a junior, there wasn’t a lot of availability in moving up and navigating and presenting in the planetarium. But what did have an opening was the outreach program.”

Working in the outreach program, he began presenting Fiske’s inflatable planetarium, solar telescope and meteorites lab at area schools. When COVID-19 hit, he was able to work at home with one of the laptops that contained the software the planetarium used to develop the music shows and began to experiment with the visuals and the playlists. During a livestream performance, he consulted on the playlist and performed some of the visuals. Finally, his bosses were beginning to see he knew how to put together a show.

When in-person shows resumed, Osowski got his break. One night the music show navigator was MIA while he was ushering. Despite starting out on the sidelines, he jumped in to save the show. Afterwards, he was hired as a temp worker with a nine-month term limit before a required hiatus. During his break, he worked as a dark skies ranger at Great Basin National Park in Nevada. Thursdays through Saturdays, he guided hikes, led telescope observing sessions and more. He enjoyed this so much he made steps toward a career in teaching, first as a substitute teacher and then considering a master’s in teaching at CU Denver, but life had other plans for him.

Flashback at Fiske

A laser show for the decades, "Flashback at Fiske" is a retrospective of iconic music spanning five decades accompanied by Fiske's legendary artistic laser and liquid sky wizardry. "Flashback at Fiske" will play weekends through May 2026, and the next show is Saturday, Oct. 4, at 10 p.m.

Learn more

Three years ago, he was pulled back into Fiske’s orbit when Director John Keller told him about the new Science through Shadows educational program, which focuses on eclipses, occultations and transits. Osowski applied to manage the program and got the position. Now his job is 75% managing the program and 25% managing the music shows.

One of the shows that Osowski has been working to create is Fiske’s 50th anniversary show, “Flashback at Fiske.”

Five decades of hits

The “Flashback at Fiske” playlist began with five decades of Billboard Hot 100 charts, Rolling Stone magazine and other music charts. Searching for what songs were popular or celebrated was the easiest way to begin planning the playlist. After Osowski had narrowed the list down to around 100 songs, he shared it with the rest of Fiske’s staff. Together, they voted on songs. “It came down to what songs were popular in those decades and what songs flowed together best,” Osowski explains. After the challenging process of debating and voting, Osowski and his colleagues managed to narrow the playlist to 15 songs.

It was hard to only pick a few songs from each decade,” he explains. “But I looked at 1975—the year we opened—and one of the top songs was Pink Floyd’s ‘Welcome to the Machine,’ and I’m a huge Pink Floyd fan, so it’s a nod to all (my) planetarium shows; I have to have a Pink Floyd song.”

There is a lot of personal touch within the playlist, he adds; despite some of the songs being iconic, they still hold a, special place for many of the staff who contributed to the project. “There’s one song from the ’80s that not many people may know, but it’s our director’s favorite song,” he says. “I tried to keep it either songs people will remember listening to or that embody the feeling of the decade or genre it comes from.”

Visually, the song choices played an important role in creating the laser imagery, he says, adding that the artist who created the graphics for the featured Beyoncé song wanted them to mirror the pop sound of the song. If the song is EDM or bass music, for example, there are more beam lasers that shoot over audience members’ heads.

Because it’s a planetarium, the base of all shows is the specialized planetarium software, DigitalSky2. Within the music shows, including the 50th anniversary show, there is the element of being flown through space by the navigator: “I like to say we blend science, nature and art,” Osowski says. “I like to drop science on people without them realizing they’re learning.”

Throughout the fall of 2025 and more dates coming in 2026, different students will run the same show. Although the playlist and lasers will remain the same, the students have full creative freedom to choose what space imagery they want to use. This allows visitors to be flown through different parts of space each performance.

A full roster of shows

While the 50th anniversary music show has been months in the making and is a highlight in commemorating Fiske’s milestone anniversary, the planetarium is maintaining its full calendar of science and other music shows.

All of Fiske Planetarium’s shows are an hour long and the usual schedule is three shows a night on Thursdays through Sundays—one science show followed by two music shows. The music shows used to be designated Laser Sky or Liquid Sky, but among other changes, Osowski is blending the two styles.

One of the most challenging aspects of Fiske’s show, he says, is that they don't change every week like in movie theatres. Osowski considers how once people have seen a show with a certain artist, they may believe they don’t need to see it again because it won’t have changed. He is working to create shows that change from one year to the next, allowing fans to consistently experience something new.

Osowski says he and the team of students and staff are working hard to develop new shows, and that all of Fiske’s shows are either student-made or student-run. He notes Caroline’s Classic Rock Show, which features hits of the 1960s and 1970s and debuted Sept. 19, adding that it sold out by Sept. 16. Another show showcases Ariana Grande’s hits, and Osowski is currently creating a Twenty One Pilots show. Part of the art of putting together this and other shows is featuring an artist’s hit but not making it a “greatest hits show,” he says. Often, creating shows means finding a balance between what Osowski or his colleagues like and what they believe the audience will want to hear.

Fiske Planetarium is more than just a venue for the light shows; it’s a place for learners of all ages. The planetarium hosts K-12 field trips and CU student classes during the day, so Osowski and his colleagues have been creating music shows that cater to those audiences.

A surprise career

When Osowski took an astronomy class in high school, he didn’t believe he could make a career out of it. Working on the MAVEN Mission with spacecraft and model data, he realized that it was the science behind space and not building that he was interested in.

“When I started doing outreach with the planetarium, I realized what I really loved was sharing science with people,” he says. “I would much rather be going to a school or setting up a solar telescope in front of the planetarium and interacting with others than working on a computer by myself.”

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Love the music and laser shows at Fiske? They’re the work of a dedicated team of students led by ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ astronomy alumnus Jeremy Osowski.

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From war zones to new worldviews

Rachel Sauer — Thu, 17 Jul 2025 13:30:00 +0000

From war zones to new worldviews Rachel Sauer Thu, 07/17/2025 - 07:30

Cody DeBos

After two combat deployments in Afghanistan, undergraduate Benjamin Blume is eager to share is unconventional educational path with fellow veterans

When Benjamin Blume talks about hiking through the Swiss Alps or photographing the stars above the Australian Outback, he does so with the same clarity he once brought to combat patrols in Afghanistan.

It wasn’t long ago that Blume, now a double major in astronomy and photography at ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ, was in a very different place.

While studying abroad may not seem like an obvious next step for military veterans, Benjamin Blume (here at Stonehenge in England) is adamant that it should be. (Photo: Benjamin Blume)

“I had two combat deployments to Afghanistan that were long and stressful,” says Blume, who served in the U.S. Army from 2010 to 2016. “But the friends and (almost all) the experiences I got out of it, I wouldn’t trade for anything.”

Blume grew up in West Houston before being stationed at Fort Carson upon joining the Army. After leaving the service, he came to ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ in 2022 seeking both a new academic challenge and a return to the Rockies.

Inspired by Star Trek: The New Generation and Neil deGrasse Tyson’s StarTalk podcast, Blume found himself drawn to astronomy.

But photography, an integral part of his journey while participating in seven study-abroad programs and getting passport stamps from 30 countries, led him to add a second major in art.

Blume’s path is unconventional, but he’s eager to share it with fellow veterans.

A shift in perspective

Blume’s first study-abroad experience came in 2016 while studying international business. When given an opportunity to join a month-long, intensive German language course in Leipzig, he jumped at the chance.

“I had only been out of the Army less than a year before my first two trips abroad, and wow did my view of the world change,” Blume says.

After years in the military, Blume says his worldview had narrowed. Deployments and Army training had conditioned him to be guarded and wary in unfamiliar environments. While these traits served him in uniform, they became barriers as he transitioned back into civilian life.

After years in the military, Benjamin Blume says his worldview had narrowed. Deployments and Army training had conditioned him to be guarded and wary in unfamiliar environments. (Photo: Benjamin Blume)

“It took me a few weeks being in another country to truly start breaking out of this thick shell I had been in for so long,” Blume says. “But once I started getting out of this mindset, I was able to truly see the world in a different light.”

From that moment on, Blume didn’t look back.

He enrolled in study-abroad programs in Australia, Switzerland, Japan, Germany, the UAE and New Zealand. Some opportunities came through his university, others entirely from his own initiative.

Blume immersed himself in local cultures, connected with fellow students from around the world, and found solace in outdoor adventure.

“I try to do things that (my younger brother and the friends I’ve lost) would have enjoyed,” he says. “Doing this helps keep me connected to their memory and also process the losses.”

Hiking the Swiss Alps, photographing historical landmarks, eating camel burgers and even tubing down an underground river lined with glowworms in New Zealand became part of Blume’s new chapter.

A message to other veterans: Just go

While studying abroad may not seem like an obvious next step for military veterans, Blume is adamant that it should be.

He says, “Many veterans have a hard time breaking out of a certain military mindset or lifestyle where that is their sole identity. This makes it really hard to open up to new things, people and cultures.”

Blume credits his upbringing for his own open-mindedness but says many veterans could benefit from the opportunity to step outside their comfort zone.

Benjamin Blume's many study abroad experiences have included New Zealand and a visit to the Shire. (Photo: Benjamin Blume)

“When we go abroad in any capacity, we should go with an open mind and try to learn, connect and understand other people without judgment or feeling like we are better than them just because of military service,” he says.

One of his favorite talking points when speaking to other veterans? The GI Bill.

“There are currently 83 countries that have schools that take the GI Bill,” Blume says. “Almost all schools have a study abroad office that is a wealth of knowledge and support.”

“Filling out a few applications, renewing your passport and buying a flight are well worth the fully funded education and adventure of studying abroad,” he says. “It’s one heck of an opportunity for veterans to explore the world after serving their country.”

‘You never know until you try’

At ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ, Blume is one of just a few veterans in his science and art classes. Though the coursework is rigorous, he says he’s found his passion and a sense of belonging.

He also uses his rich life experiences to empower those around him.

“I feel like having the life/world experiences I’ve had and being older gives me an opportunity to mentor others. I try to be one of the hardest workers and set an example for younger students,” Blume says.

He’s also grateful for ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ’s Veterans Bridge Program and the campus Study Abroad Office, both of which he credits with making his latest academic journey possible. “The ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ Study Abroad Office is the perfect place to start and get the ball rolling,” he says.

When he’s not focused on combining his love for science and art into a future that includes astrophotography and even more travel, Blume continues to be a passionate advocate for study abroad—particularly for his fellow veterans.

“Joining the military isn’t for everyone, but after getting out as a veteran, why not continue seeing the world? Even if you aren’t going to school, travel is its own adventure and has opened my mind to everything there is to see and do,” Blume says.

“Oh, and it’s even better when it’s pretty much all paid for,” he adds with a smile.

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After two combat deployments in Afghanistan, undergraduate Benjamin Blume is eager to share is unconventional educational path with fellow veterans.

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But how’s the atmosphere there?

Rachel Sauer — Wed, 04 Jun 2025 18:10:46 +0000

But how’s the atmosphere there? Rachel Sauer Wed, 06/04/2025 - 12:10

Rachel Sauer

In newly published research, ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ scientists study a rocky exoplanet outside our solar system, learning more about whether and how planets maintain atmospheres

In June 2019, Harvard astrophysicists discovered a rocky exoplanet 22 light years from Earth. Analyzing data from the Transiting Exoplanets Survey Satellite (TESS), they and other scientists around the world learned key details about the rocky exoplanet named LTT 1445 A b: It is almost 1.3 times the radius of Earth and 2.7 times Earth’s mass and orbits its M-dwarf star every 5.4 days.

What they couldn’t ascertain from those data, however, was whether LTT 1445 A b has an atmosphere, “and that’s a big general question even in our own solar system: What sets how much atmosphere a planet has?” says Zach Berta-Thompson, a University of Colorado Boulder assistant professor of astrophysical and planetary sciences. “Atmospheres matter for life, so before we go searching for life on other planets, we need to understand a very basic question—why does a planet have atmosphere or not have atmosphere?”

Pat Wachiraphan (left), a PhD student in the ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, and Zach Berta-Thompson (right), an assistant professor in the department, collaborated with colleagues around the country to study JWST data about rocky exoplanet LTT 1445 A b.

Now, after detailed analysis of data from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), a lot more is known—and was recently published—about LTT 1445 A b, whether it has an atmosphere and what its atmosphere might be if it has one. ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ researchers partnered with astrophysicists around the country to build on previous research that ruled out a light hydrogen/helium-dominated atmosphere but could not distinguish between a cloudy atmosphere, an atmosphere composed of heavier molecules like carbon dioxide or a bare rock.

The paper’s first author, Pat Wachiraphan, a PhD student studying astrophysical and planetary sciences, Berta-Thompson and their colleagues analyzed three eclipses of LTT 1445 A b from the JWST, watching the planet disappear behind its star and measuring how much infrared light the planet emits. From this, they were able to rule out the presence of a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere like the one on Venus, which has about 100 times more atmosphere than Earth. This highlights an important aspect of science: Sometimes just as much is learned from understanding what something isn’t as from defining what it is.

“What I think should be the next step, naturally, is to ask whether we might detect an Earth-like atmosphere?” Wachiraphan says.

Not like Venus

LTT 1445 A b is one of the closest-to-Earth rocky exoplanets transiting a small star, Wachiraphan notes, and thus one of the easiest to target when studying whether and how it and similar rocky exoplanets hold atmospheres.

The JWST is more sensitive to atmospheres of transiting exoplanets around smaller stars, and LTT 1445 A b transits one of the smallest known type stars—about 20 to 30% the radius of Earth’s sun.

In November 2020, Berta-Thompson and several colleagues submitted a proposal to the Space Telescope Science Institute, the international consortium that decides where JWST is pointed and for how long, “before the telescope had even launched,” he says. “Scientists from all over the world send in anonymized proposals where we make our case for why (JWST) should spend hours looking at this particular patch of the sky and what we would be able to learn from that.

“A panel reads through the proposals, ranks them, from which a lucky 5% to 10% will be selected as the best possible scientific use of the telescope. It is such a precious resource that we care really deeply that the choices about who gets to use the telescope are made fairly; every minute of its time is accounted for.”

Rocky exoplanet LTT 1445 A b is in a three-star system; the star it orbits is an M-type star, also known as a red dwarf. (Artists' illustration: Luis L. Calçada and Martin Kornmesser/European Southern Observatory)

Studying data from three eclipses sent back by JWST, Wachiraphan, Berta-Thompson and their colleagues were able to chart thermal emission consistent with instant reradiation of incoming stellar energy from a hot planet dayside. “This bright dayside emission is consistent with emission from a dark rocky surface, and it disfavors a thick, 100-bar, Venus-like CO2 atmosphere,” the researchers noted.

“So, you can imagine that if you have a planet that is just a rock, with no atmosphere, it would be hot on day side and cold on the night side, but if it has atmosphere, then the atmosphere could redistribute heat from day to night,” Wachiraphan says.

In the case of LTT 1445 A b, “we were basically putting an infrared thermometer up to the planet’s forehead and learned its average temperature is around 500 Kelvin,” Berta-Thompson says. “The whole planet is like the inside of a hot oven, basically.

Based on the data sent back by JWST, there could be several ways to detect atmosphere on LTT 1445 A b. “We came up with an observation with this planet passing behind its star. When the planet is behind its star, we’d just get light from the star itself, but before and after the eclipse we’d get a little contribution from the planet itself, too.” Wachiraphan explains. “But you can also detect an atmosphere when a planet passes in front of its star. “The starlight coming out could pass through the atmosphere of the planet and get absorbed, and we could observe that absorption.”

More observations are currently planned for LTT 1445 A b, led by other scientists and using this complementary method of observation, Berta-Thompson says—of collecting data as the planet transits in front of its star. “There’s a lot more we can learn using different wavelengths of light and different methods that allow us to more sensitively probe these thinner atmospheres.”

Like the inside of a hot oven

One of the most fascinating questions for researchers studying exoplanets, Berta-Thopson says, is “what does it take for a planet to retain or maintain atmosphere? Learning more about that is an important step in the process toward finding a planet maybe like this one—that has a surface, has an atmosphere, is a little farther away from its star, where you can imagine it has liquid water at the surface. Then you’re asking, ‘Is this a place where life could potentially thrive? Is there a place where life is thriving?”

These questions are so interesting, in fact, that they’ve prompted the formation of the Rocky Worlds Program, with which Wachiraphan and Berta-Thompson will work closely, to support international collaboration on the next phases of exploration of rocky exoplanets using satellite data.

“Using this really magnificent telescope that is the collective effort of thousands of people over decades, let alone the broader community that found this planet, is the kind of thing that is under threat right now,” Berta-Thompson says. “All of this science and this discovery requires a really long, big, sustained investment in telescopes, in scientists, in education.”

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In newly published research, ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ scientists study a rocky exoplanet outside our solar system, learning more about whether and how planets maintain atmospheres.

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Rocky exoplanet LTT 1445 A b tightly orbits its parent star, which in turn orbits two other stars in a three-star system. (Artist's rendering of LTT 1445 A b: Martin Kornmesser/European Southern Observatory)

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CU grad Erin Macdonald makes it so

Rachel Sauer — Tue, 15 Apr 2025 22:18:50 +0000

CU grad Erin Macdonald makes it so Rachel Sauer Tue, 04/15/2025 - 16:18

Bradley Worrell

The 2009 math and astrophysics double major has successfully transformed herself from a scientist to an educator to a storyteller sailing with the enterprise known as Star Trek

As she worked toward completing her bachelor’s degrees in astrophysics and mathematics at the University of Colorado Boulder in the late 2000s, Erin Macdonald often enjoyed watching Star Trek: The Next Generation with her college friends. Today, she is a science advisor for the entire Star Trek franchise.

“I don’t think I could have ever conceived it, that being able to work in television and movies was a real thing that people could actually do,” Macdonald says in retrospect. “And if you told me that I would see my name in TV credits—not to mention in the Star Trek font with the Star Trek theme playing—it’s almost unbelievable.”

It’s been a remarkable journey from academia to Hollywood, Macdonald acknowledges. Still, she is quick to add that in a multiverse of possibilities, the outcome was never assured, and it did not happen at warp speed.

��ý�Ļ��Ʒ alumnus Erin Macdonald, who double majored in mathematics and astrophysics, is a science advisor for the Star Trek franchise and author of Star Trek: My First Book of Space. (Photo: Bradley Worrell)

Raised in Fort Collins, Colorado, Macdonald did not grow up watching Star Trek. However, she was deeply motivated to study science after being inspired by the protagonist astronomer Ellie Arroway in the movie Contact, as well as by fictional FBI agent and medical doctor Dana Scully in the popular TV show The X-Files.

“I watched The X-Files growing up, and Dana Scully for me was just the coolest woman who ever existed. That really sparked an excitement to be a scientist,” she says. “And then when Contact came out, watching Dr. Ellie Arroway use a telescope to find aliens, and seeing her legitimately work as an astronomer was the first time I ever saw that as a career.”

Still, there were some obstacles to overcome, Macdonald says, including the fact that math did not come naturally to her.

“In high school, I had friends who were taking classes that seemed to get it. And for me, I felt like I was trudging through mud trying to understand things—but knowing that I had to get through the math,” she says. Finally, when taking a Calculus 3 course at ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ, she says she experienced a breakthrough when she came to understand how math worked with physics, and then “everything just clicked.” It prompted her to immediately declare a double major in mathematics and astrophysics.

Gaining another role model

It also was in college that Macdonald was first exposed to Star Trek through a tightknit group of fellow students who were big fans of the TV shows.

“In the Venn diagram of physics majors and Star Trek fans, there is a big intersection,” she says with a laugh. “I was in my early 20s and (fictional) Voyager Captain Catherine Janeway became my new Scully. She was someone who had gone from being a science officer to a captain. At that point, I knew I wanted to get my PhD, but I didn’t necessarily want to be a researcher as a career. So, Janeway was a role model, how she was a leader and a problem-solver and a mentor. It was something I aspired to.”

After graduating from ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ in May 2009, Macdonald enrolled at the University of Glasgow in Scotland, where she earned her PhD in astrophysics in 2012. Normally, a master’s degree would be the next educational step after obtaining an undergraduate degree, but Macdonald credits the quality of the education she received at ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ—and particularly the research opportunity and mentorship of astrophysics and planetary sciences Professor Jeremy Darling—with allowing her to immediately advance to working toward a doctorate.

After obtaining her PhD, Macdonald spent two years doing post-doctoral research at Cardiff University in Wales, United Kingdom. She later moved back to Colorado, where she worked as an adjunct professor in the community college system and as an educator at the Denver Museum of Nature & Science for about a year, then transitioned to work as an aerospace engineer for a contractor based in the Denver area.

“In the Venn diagram of physics majors and Star Trek fans, there is a big intersection,” says ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ alumnus Erin Macdonald. (Photo: Bradley Worrell)

It was during her time working for the contractor, and while attending pop culture conventions for fun, that Macdonald hit upon the idea that she could combine her deep knowledge of astrophysics with her love of science fiction to give talks on the science of science fiction TV shows, movies and videogames at fan conventions.

“After a while in the private sector, I found I really missed teaching. I was already going to conventions, so I proposed giving talks,” she says, adding that event organizers were receptive to the idea. “For topics, a popular one is physics and Star Trek. I’d say, ‘I did my PhD in gravitational physics, so let me explain how (theoretically) warp drives work, because I actually know the science of how warp drives work.’”

To boldly go …

In 2017, Macdonald moved to the Los Angeles area, where she continued to work in the aerospace industry while also giving science/science fiction talks at fan conventions, or as she describes herself in that time: “rocket scientist by day, warp engineering expert by evening.” It was during that period that she began meeting actors and writers at fan events, which ultimately led to industry connections with executives at CBS, the producer of all things Star Trek.

Macdonald was initially hired to give talks at CBS-sponsored events, including Star Trek Cruises. That led to an introduction with the co-executive producer of Star Trek Discovery, who asked Macdonald to serve as a science advisor for the show as season 3 began production.

“I believe I did a good job on that season, so I think the executives saw value in hiring a science advisor to be available to all of their shows to maintain consistency across the franchise, to understand all of the made-up technologies that we have in Star Trek and to be able to communicate that to the writers as well,” she says. “That’s been going on since 2019, so almost five years now.”

Meanwhile, Macdonald has written four screenplays, and she has done voice acting for Star Trek Prodigy, an animated Star Trek show, during which she had the opportunity to work with Kate Mulgrew, the actress who played Captain Janeway on Star Trek Voyager.

“When I started working on Star Trek Prodigy, they were bringing Captain Janeway back as a teacher for young kids. I was going to help write some of her lines, and that was when I had this huge epiphany of—I’m not meant to become Captain Janeway; I’m meant to write Captain Janeway and create characters that inspire kids to become scientists.”

“When I started working on Star Trek Prodigy, they were bringing Captain Janeway back as a teacher for young kids. I was going to help write some of her lines, and that was when I had this huge epiphany of—I’m not meant to become Captain Janeway; I’m meant to write Captain Janeway and create characters that inspire kids to become scientists,” she says. “And so now, I find that storytelling lets me sort of inspire and motivate the next generation of STEM professionals, and that’s what I want to do as a career.”

Macdonald has found her voice as a storyteller in several different ways. In 2022, she published Star Trek: My First Book of Space, an illustrate children’s board book that uses Star Trek to talk about science, technology, engineering, arts and math (STEAM), and she wrote and narrated the Audible Original “The Science of Sci-Fi” in collaboration with The Great Courses.

Additionally, in 2021, McDonald created Spacetime Productions, a film development and production company devoted to giving representation to traditionally marginalized voices, including those in the LGBTQIA+ community. The company has produced two short films including Identiteaze, released on the streaming service Nebula earlier this summer.

Reflecting on her journey from scientist to educator to storyteller, Macdonald says her success is the result of recognizing good opportunities, trusting her instincts, perseverance and, most importantly, putting in the time and work to achieve her goals.

“You know, I didn’t quit my PhD and move to LA with no plan. I took those important steps in between,” she says. “And it took me until well into my 30s for me to realize what I wanted, to be a storyteller and create those Dana Scullys and Captain Janeways, as opposed to becoming one of those characters. And that’s OK. All of those steps along the way helped inform the work I do now.”

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The 2009 math and astrophysics double major has successfully transformed herself from a scientist to an educator to a storyteller sailing with the enterprise known as 'Star Trek.'

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It hits Earth like a bolt of lightning

Rachel Sauer — Mon, 10 Feb 2025 22:48:36 +0000

It hits Earth like a bolt of lightning Rachel Sauer Mon, 02/10/2025 - 15:48

Lauren Blum

Lightning strikes link weather on Earth and weather in space

There are trillions of charged particles—protons and electrons, the basic building blocks of matter—whizzing around above your head at any given time. These high-energy particles, which can travel at close to the speed of light, typically remain thousands of kilometers away from Earth, trapped there by the shape of Earth’s magnetic field.

Occasionally, though, an event happens that can jostle them out of place, sending electrons raining down into Earth’s atmosphere. These high-energy particles in space make up what are known as the Van Allen radiation belts, and their discovery was one of the first of the space age. A new study from my research team has found that electromagnetic waves generated by lightning can trigger these electron showers.

A brief history lesson

At the start of the space race in the 1950s, professor James Van Allen and his research team at the University of Iowa were tasked with building an experiment to fly on the United States’ very first satellite, Explorer 1. They designed sensors to study cosmic radiation, which is caused by high-energy particles originating from the Sun, the Milky Way galaxy, or beyond.

��ý�Ļ��Ʒ scientist Lauren Blum and her research team has found that electromagnetic waves generated by lightning can trigger electron showers in Earth's atmosphere.

After Explorer 1 launched, though, they noticed that their instrument was detecting significantly higher levels of radiation than expected. Rather than measuring a distant source of radiation beyond our solar system, they appeared to be measuring a local and extremely intense source.

This measurement led to the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts, two doughnut-shaped regions of high-energy electrons and ions encircling the planet.

Scientists believe that the inner radiation belt, peaking about 621 miles (1000 kilometers) from Earth, is composed of electrons and high-energy protons and is relatively stable over time.

The outer radiation belt, about three times farther away, is made up of high-energy electrons. This belt can be highly dynamic. Its location, density and energy content may vary significantly by the hour in response to solar activity.

The discovery of these high-radiation regions is not only an interesting story about the early days of the space race; it also serves as a reminder that many scientific discoveries have come about by happy accident.

It is a lesson for experimental scientists, myself included, to keep an open mind when analyzing and evaluating data. If the data doesn’t match our theories or expectations, those theories may need to be revisited.

Our curious observations

While I teach the history of the space race in a space policy course at the University of Colorado, Boulder, I rarely connect it to my own experience as a scientist researching Earth’s radiation belts. Or, at least, I didn’t until recently.

In a study led by Max Feinland, an undergraduate student in my research group, we stumbled upon some of our own unexpected observations of Earth’s radiation belts. Our findings have made us rethink our understanding of Earth’s inner radiation belt and the processes affecting it.

Originally, we set out to look for very rapid—sub-second—bursts of high-energy electrons entering the atmosphere from the outer radiation belt, where they are typically observed.

Lightning can generate electromagnetic waves known as lightning-generated whistlers, which can travel through the atmosphere and out into space. (Photo: iStock)

Many scientists believe that a type of electromagnetic wave known as “chorus” can knock these electrons out of position and send them toward the atmosphere. They’re called chorus waves due to their distinct chirping sound when listened to on a radio receiver.

Feinland developed an algorithm to search for these events in decades of measurements from the SAMPEX satellite. When he showed me a plot with the location of all the events he’d detected, we noticed a number of them were not where we expected. Some events mapped to the inner radiation belt rather than the outer belt.

This finding was curious for two reasons. For one, chorus waves aren’t prevalent in this region, so something else had to be shaking these electrons loose.

The other surprise was finding electrons this energetic in the inner radiation belt at all. Measurements from NASA’s Van Allen Probes mission prompted renewed interest in the inner radiation belt. Observations from the Van Allen Probes suggested that high-energy electrons are often not present in this inner radiation belt, at least not during the first few years of that mission, from 2012 to 2014.

Our observations now showed that, in fact, there are times that the inner belt contains high-energy electrons. How often this is true and under what conditions remain open questions to explore. These high-energy particles can damage spacecraft and harm humans in space, so researchers need to know when and where in space they are present to better design spacecraft.

Determining the culprit

One of the ways to disturb electrons in the inner radiation belt and kick them into Earth’s atmosphere actually begins in the atmosphere itself.

Lightning, the large electromagnetic discharges that light up the sky during thunderstorms, can actually generate electromagnetic waves known as lightning-generated whistlers.

��ý�Ļ��Ʒ researcher Lauren Blum and her colleagues discovered that a combination of weather on Earth and weather in space produces unique electron signatures. (Photo: Pixabay)

These waves can then travel through the atmosphere out into space, where they interact with electrons in the inner radiation belt—much as chorus waves interact with electrons in the outer radiation belt.

To test whether lightning was behind our inner radiation belt detections, we looked back at the electron bursts and compared them with thunderstorm data. Some lightning activity seemed correlated with our electron events, but much of it was not.

Specifically, only lightning that occurred right after so-called geomagnetic storms resulted in the bursts of electrons we detected.

Geomagnetic storms are disturbances in the near-Earth space environment often caused by large eruptions on the Sun’s surface. This solar activity, if directed toward Earth, can produce what researchers term space weather. Space weather can result in stunning auroras, but it can also disrupt satellite and power grid operations.

We discovered that a combination of weather on Earth and weather in space produces the unique electron signatures we observed in our study. The solar activity disturbs Earth’s radiation belts and populates the inner belt with very high-energy electrons, then the lightning interacts with these electrons and creates the rapid bursts that we observed.

These results provide a nice reminder of the interconnected nature of Earth and space. They were also a welcome reminder to me of the often nonlinear process of scientific discovery.

Lauren Blum is an assistant professor in the Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Lightning strikes link weather on Earth and weather in space.

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As hot as a pizza oven and dry as a desert

Anonymous — Fri, 24 May 2024 19:09:12 +0000

As hot as a pizza oven and dry as a desert Anonymous (not verified) Fri, 05/24/2024 - 13:09

Eryn Cangi

Venus is losing water faster than previously thought—here’s what that could mean for the early planet’s habitability.

Today, the atmosphere of our neighbor planet Venus is as hot as a pizza oven and drier than the driest desert on Earth – but it wasn’t always that way.

Billions of years ago, Venus had as much water as Earth does today. If that water was ever liquid, Venus may have once been habitable.

Over time, that water has nearly all been lost. Figuring out how, when and why Venus lost its water helps planetary scientists like me understand what makes a planet habitable — or what can make a habitable planet transform into an uninhabitable world.

Scientists have theories explaining why most of that water disappeared, but more water has disappeared than they predicted.

Eryn Cangi is a NASA FINESST Fellow in the ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences.

In a May 2024 study, my colleagues and I revealed a new water removal process that has gone unnoticed for decades, but could explain this water loss mystery.

Energy balance and early loss of water

The solar system has a habitable zone – a narrow ring around the Sun in which planets can have liquid water on their surface. Earth is in the middle, Mars is outside on the too-cold side, and Venus is outside on the too-hot side. Where a planet sits on this habitability spectrum depends on how much energy the planet gets from the Sun, as well as how much energy the planet radiates away.

The theory of how most of Venus’ water loss occurred is tied to this energy balance. On early Venus, sunlight broke up water in its atmosphere into hydrogen and oxygen. Atmospheric hydrogen heats up a planet — like having too many blankets on the bed in summer.

When the planet gets too hot, it throws off the blanket: the hydrogen escapes in a flow out to space, a process called hydrodynamic escape. This process removed one of the key ingredients for water from Venus. It’s not known exactly when this process occurred, but it was likely within the first billion years or so.

Hydrodynamic escape stopped after most hydrogen was removed, but a little bit of hydrogen was left behind. It’s like dumping out a water bottle – there will still be a few drops left at the bottom. These leftover drops can’t escape in the same way. There must be some other process still at work on Venus that continues to remove hydrogen.

Little reactions can make a big difference

Our new study reveals that an overlooked chemical reaction in Venus’ atmosphere can produce enough escaping hydrogen to close the gap between the expected and observed water loss.

Here’s how it works. In the atmosphere, gaseous HCO⁺ molecules, which are made up of one atom each of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen and have a positive charge, combine with negatively charged electrons, since opposites attract.

But when the HCO⁺ and the electrons react, the HCO⁺ breaks up into a neutral carbon monoxide molecule, CO, and a hydrogen atom, H. This process energizes the hydrogen atom, which can then exceed the planet’s escape velocity and escape to space. The whole reaction is called HCO⁺ dissociative recombination, but we like to call it DR for short.

Water is the original source of hydrogen on Venus, so DR effectively dries out the planet. DR has likely happened throughout the history of Venus, and our work shows it probably still continues into the present day. It doubles the amount of hydrogen escape previously calculated by planetary scientists, upending our understanding of present-day hydrogen escape on Venus.

Understanding Venus with data, models and Mars

To study DR on Venus we used both computer modeling and data analysis.

The modeling actually began as a Mars project. My Ph.D. research involved exploring what sort of conditions made planets habitable for life. Mars also used to have water, though less than Venus, and also lost most of it to space.

To understand martian hydrogen escape, I developed a computational model of the Mars atmosphere that simulates Mars’ atmospheric chemistry. Despite being very different planets, Mars and Venus actually have similar upper atmospheres, so my colleagues and I were able to extend the model to Venus.

A colorized photo of Venus taken Feb. 14, 1990, from a distance of almost 1.7 million miles, about 6 days after NASA's Galileo made it closest approach to the planet. (Photo: NASA/JPL)

We found that HCO⁺ dissociative recombination produces lots of escaping hydrogen in both planets’ atmospheres, which agreed with measurements taken by the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN, or MAVEN, mission, a satellite orbiting Mars.

Having data collected in Venus’ atmosphere to back up the model would be valuable, but previous missions to Venus haven’t measured HCO⁺ – not because it’s not there, but because they weren’t designed to detect it. They did, however, measure the reactants that produce HCO⁺ in Venus’ atmosphere.

By analyzing measurements made by Pioneer Venus, a combination orbiter and probe mission that studied Venus from 1978-1992, and using our knowledge of chemistry, we demonstrated that HCO⁺ should be present in the atmosphere in similar amounts to our model.

Follow the water

Our work has filled in a piece of the puzzle of how water is lost from planets, which affects how habitable a planet is for life. We’ve learned that water loss happens not just in one fell swoop, but over time through a combination of methods.

Faster hydrogen loss today via DR means that less time is required overall to remove the remaining water from Venus. This means that if oceans were ever present on early Venus, they could have been present for longer than scientists thought before water loss through hydrodynamic escape and DR started. This would provide more time for possible life to arise. Our results don’t mean oceans or life were definitely present, though – answering that question will require lots more science over many years.

There is also a need for new Venus missions and observations. Future Venus missions will provide some atmospheric measurements, but they won’t focus on the upper atmosphere where most HCO⁺ dissociative recombination takes place. A future Venus upper atmosphere mission, similar to the MAVEN mission at Mars, could vastly expand everyone’s knowledge of how terrestrial planets’ atmospheres form and evolve over time.

With the technological advancements of recent decades and a flourishing new interest in Venus, now is an excellent time to turn our eyes toward Earth’s sister planet.

Eryn Cangi is a NASA FINESST Fellow in the Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Venus is losing water faster than previously thought—here’s what that could mean for the early planet’s habitability.

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��ý�Ļ��Ʒ astrophysicist elected to National Academy of Sciences

Anonymous — Thu, 09 May 2024 16:59:00 +0000

��ý�Ļ��Ʒ astrophysicist elected to National Academy of Sciences Anonymous (not verified) Thu, 05/09/2024 - 10:59

Distinguished Professor Mitch Begelman of astrophysical and planetary sciences is recognized for ‘distinguished and continuing achievements in original research’

Mitch Begelman, distinguished professor of astrophysical and planetary sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder, has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the academy has announced.

Begelman is one of 120 U.S. members and 24 international members who were recognized this year for their “distinguished and continuing achievements in original research.”

Begelman's research primarily explores the frontiers of theoretical and high-energy astrophysics, focusing on the dynamics of black holes and their energy outputs. His pioneering work has significantly advanced the understanding of how black holes influence their surrounding environments and contribute to the broader structure of the universe.

In 2022, for instance, he was part of a team of researchers who observed a sudden change in the magnetic field lines in a class of black holes known as active galaxy nuclei.

��ý�Ļ��Ʒ scientist Mitch Begelman is the author of Turn Right at Orion:Travels Through the Cosmos and co-author of Gravity’s Fatal Attraction: Black Holes in the Universe.

Begelman said he was gratified by the recognition: “It's an especially nice honor, because it's a recognition by peers who themselves have been honored for their contributions to science. It's also an invitation to help the academy further its mission to advise the government on science policy and planning, and I look forward to playing my part in that responsibility.”

David Brain, associate professor and chair of the Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, said the recognition was well deserved: “He is an excellent scientist, more than worthy of recognition by the National Academy. Importantly for the APS department, he is also an excellent professor,” Brain said, adding:

“He enthusiastically teaches large undergraduate courses on black holes and astrophysics, and is very active in service to the department, including serving as department chair twice. He manages to do all of this while still regularly producing high-quality science with his students, postdocs and colleagues.”

Begelman is the author of Turn Right at Orion:Travels Through the Cosmos and co-author of Gravity’s Fatal Attraction: Black Holes in the Universe. He has been an author on more than 200 peer-reviewed journal articles.

Begelman holds a PhD in theoretical astrophysics from the University of Cambridge and degrees in physics from Harvard University. He joined the ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ faculty in 1982 and has served as chair of his department. Begelman is also a fellow of JILA, a joint institute of ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ and the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Among previous recognition that Begelman has received are the following: The CU Board of Regents bestowed the title of distinguished professor on him in 2020, and the College of Arts and Sciences named him a professor of distinction in 2018. He was listed as a Highly Cited Researcher, a measure of a researcher’s influence, in 2001.

He won the Boulder Faculty Assembly Award for Excellence in Research, Scholarly and Creative Work in 2000, and he won a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1998.

Begelman is the 46^th ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ faculty member to be elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the first being selected in 1945. Other ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ members include its Nobel laureates Carl Wieman, Eric Cornell, John Hall, David Wineland and Thomas Cech.

Those elected to the academy this year bring the total number of active members to 2,617 and the total number of international members to 537. International members are nonvoting members of the academy, with citizenship outside the United States.

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Distinguished Professor Mitch Begelman of astrophysical and planetary sciences is recognized for ‘distinguished and continuing achievements in original research.'

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Astronomer honored for heavenly solar-eclipse photos

Anonymous — Thu, 07 Mar 2024 21:38:31 +0000

Astronomer honored for heavenly solar-eclipse photos Anonymous (not verified) Thu, 03/07/2024 - 14:38

Bradley Worrell

The images were taken with a device that Doug Duncan invented to capture eclipses with a smartphone

Doug Duncan, an emeritus faculty member in the Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder and the former director of the Fiske Planetarium, was recently among a select few recognized by the International Astronomical Union for their photos of the heavens.

The IAU’s Office of Astronomy for Education awarded prizes to about 30 people worldwide, including Duncan. The IAU said it selected the winners after receiving nearly 430 entries from 40 countries and territories worldwide for its third-annual astrophotography contest, which was judged by an international panel of astrophotographers and astronomy teachers.

Doug Duncan, an emeritus faculty member in the ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, made this award-winning solar eclipse photo with his smartphone.

“The images of the sky captured by enthusiast stargazers can leave one in awe, but they can also be important teaching tools,” the IAU notes. It adds that the organization “sought out images of the motions of the heavens: from the Sun’s path across the sky through the year to the movement of the stars in the night sky and the changing phases of Venus.”

Duncan received an honorable mention award for his photos of a solar eclipse, taken with his smartphone. Images taken with smartphones or other mobile devices was one of five IAU photo award categories.

Under normal circumstances, attempting to capture a solar eclipse with an unaided smartphone camera is a very bad idea, Duncan says, noting the sun’s rays can harm a smartphone internal workings in the same way that looking at the sun for extended periods can damage people’s retinas.

Jason Johnson made this award-winning photo of the northern lights on a CU Alumni Association Roaming Buffaloes trip organized by Doug Duncan. (Photo: Jason Johnson)

However, that was not an issue for Duncan, thanks to his use of the Solar Snap—a product he designed to safely capture photos of solar eclipses with a special eclipse-viewing lens that attaches to the smartphone’s camera lens and software that controls a camera’s zoom, focus and exposure. After about two years in research and development by Duncan, the Solar Snap is marketed by Bartlett, Tennessee-based American Paper Optics, which he says has sold about 50,000 Solar Snaps.

As for winning the astrophography award from the IAU, Duncan says, “It was a nice to be recognized. I’m particularly happy for the recognition it brings to the Solar Snap, which is the first invention I followed from the idea through completion. And people who use it are quite happy with it, so that makes me feel good.”

Duncan adds that he is just as happy that one of winning photos in the smartphones categories was taken by a participant in a CU Alumni Association Roaming Buffaloes trip that he organized last year to view the northern lights. Duncan said he was happy to give some photo tips to Jason Johnson, who won an IAU award for his photo "Northern Lights Color."

Meanwhile, Duncan is gearing up for his next Roaming Buffaloes trip, to witness a full eclipse next month in Texas, an event he is calling “Totality Over Texas.”

And after that?

“Well, I was thinking of retiring,” he says with a chuckle. “But the next total eclipse I’m focused on is in the summer of 2026 in Spain, pretty close to Barcelona and Valencia. And if an eclipse is happening in a really beautiful place, that’s when I’m very tempted to go.”

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The images were taken with a device that Doug Duncan invented to capture eclipses with a smartphone.

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Nobel Prize winner Andrea Ghez to give 53rd Gamow lecture

Anonymous — Wed, 21 Feb 2024 17:10:38 +0000

Nobel Prize winner Andrea Ghez to give 53rd Gamow lecture Anonymous (not verified) Wed, 02/21/2024 - 10:10

Astrophysicist who confirmed black hole at galaxy’s center to speak March 5 at ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ

Andrea Ghez, recipient of the 2020 Nobel Prize in physics, will give the 53rd George Gamow Memorial Lecture March 5 at the University of Colorado Boulder.

Ghez, Lauren B. Leichtman and Arthur E. Levine Professor of Physics and Astronomy at UCLA, shared half of the prize with Reinhard Genzel of the University of California, Berkeley.

Andrea Ghez, 2020 Nobel Prize winner in physics, will give the 53rd George Gamow Memorial Lecture March 5 at the University of Colorado Boulder. (Photo: The Nobel Foundation)

The pair were recognized by the Nobel committee for their discovery of a “supermassive” black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy. Ghez, head of UCLA’s Galactic Center Group, solved the question, what exactly is “Sagittarius A*,” which was first detected as a mysterious radio signal in 1933.

“I see being a scientist as really fundamentally being a puzzle-solver,” Ghez said in 2021. “Putting together the pieces, trying to find the evidence, trying to see the bigger picture.”

If you go

What: 53rd George Gamow Memorial Lecture

Who: Andrea Ghez, recipient of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics

When: 7:30 p.m. Tuesday, March 5

Where: Macky Auditorium, University of Colorado Boulder campus

Tickets: Free and open to the public

Learn more

She helped develop a new technology to correct the distorting effects of Earth’s atmosphere. Gathering data from the world’s largest telescope system, the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii, she and her team continue to plumb the depths of the galactic center 26,000 light years distant.

While Albert Einstein’s epochal work on relativity remains the best description of how gravity works, Ghez says it can’t account for gravity inside a black hole. Through what she calls “extreme astrophysics,” she seeks to go where the pioneering astrophysicist could not.

“Einstein’s right for now,” she said. “However, his theory is showing vulnerability. … At some point we will need to move … to a more comprehensive theory of gravity.”

A member of the National Academy of Sciences and author of a 2006 children’s book, “You Can Be a Woman Astronomer,” Ghez is widely recognized as a role model for young women.

“Seeing people who look like you, or are different from you, succeeding shows you that there’s an opportunity,” she said.

Top image: An artist's concept illustrating a supermassive black hole with millions to billions times the mass of the Sun. (Illustration: NASA/JPL-Caltech)

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Astrophysicist who confirmed black hole at galaxy’s center to speak March 5 at ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ.

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The most outstanding solar-flare eruptions are not always the most influential

Anonymous — Thu, 15 Feb 2024 16:42:05 +0000

The most outstanding solar-flare eruptions are not always the most influential Anonymous (not verified) Thu, 02/15/2024 - 09:42

Blake Puscher

A recent ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ study suggests that confined flares are more efficient at heating plasma and producing ionizing radiation than comparable eruptive flares

While many studies have compared the magnetic properties of confined and eruptive solar flares, few have considered the thermodynamic properties of confined flares and even fewer in comparison to eruptive ones.

Maria Kazachenko, an assistant professor in the University of Colorado Boulder Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, is one of the few to have explored this subject. In a paper published in The Astrophysical Journal and featured on AAS Nova, she conducted a study quantifying the thermodynamic and magnetic properties of hundreds of solar flares.

Solar flares are enormous explosions of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun. They happen when energy stored in magnetic fields, usually above sunspots, is suddenly released. Some flares involve a coronal mass ejection (CME), in which a huge amount of charged particles, or plasma, is flung out.

��ý�Ļ��Ʒ researcher Maria Kazachenko found that confined solar flares, or flares with no associated coronal mass ejection, may be more efficient at accelerating particles and therefore at producing ionizing radiation as well.

Some of the study’s results confirm the findings of earlier inquiries. However, the paper also includes new information suggesting that confined flares, or flares with no associated CME, may be more efficient at accelerating particles and therefore at producing ionizing radiation as well.

What is a solar flare?

Solar flares are caused by the Sun’s magnetic fields, which are strongest in the dark areas called sunspots. When inactive, these fields look like loops. However, when the subsurface flows of the Sun begin to shear and twist the sunspots that they are tied to, the magnetic fields become twisted as well.

“You could imagine it like a rubber band that you start twisting,” Kazachenko explains. “At some point, you cut it, then … energy will get released and you will get a snap on your hand.”

Like the elastic energy of the rubber band is released when it is cut, a fraction of the magnetic energy of the Sun is released during a process called magnetic reconnection. Magnetic reconnection can take different forms, but “one of the simplest configurations,” Kazachenko says, “is when you have two oppositely directed field lines being pushed against each other … the magnetic fields could suddenly change their configuration and release a huge amount of energy, similar to rubber bands that get cut all of a sudden.”

The free magnetic energy that is released during magnetic reconnection is stored in plasma currents. Electric currents produce magnetic fields, as seen in electromagnets, and charged particles moving within the Sun’s plasma function similarly.

Confined and eruptive flares

While some solar flares are associated with CMEs, where plasma is ejected from the solar atmosphere and into space, others are not. If a solar flare is associated with a CME, it is considered eruptive; if it doesn’t have an associated CME, it is considered confined. The difference between the two goes deeper than that, however, because the mechanisms that determine whether a flare is confined or eruptive may also decide how quickly the magnetic fields will reconnect and how much hard X-ray and gamma ray radiation it will emit.

As their name suggests, confined flares are unable to escape the Sun’s atmosphere because of constraining influences. These influences, known as strapping fields, are also magnetic. For this reason, active regions with more magnetic flux also have stronger strapping fields and are therefore less likely to be eruptive.

An Oct. 2, 2014, solar flare captured by NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory. The solar flare is the bright flash of light at top and a burst of solar material erupting into space is just to the right of it. (Photo: NASA/SDO)

According to Kazachenko, this explains why the confined flares that she studied had higher temperatures and underwent reconnection more quickly than eruptive flares of the same peak X-ray flux: “In confined flares, you have reconnection happening lower because you have a very strong strapping field of the active region that doesn’t allow the structure to go up … the fields are stronger lower down, so reconnection proceeds much faster.”

While the significance of faster reconnection may not be immediately obvious, the research paper explains, “As higher reconnection rates lead to more accelerated ions and electrons, large confined flares could be more efficient at producing ionizing electromagnetic radiation than eruptive flares.”

This is not to say that more energy is released during the reconnection of a confined flare; in fact, eruptive flares have the same amount of reconnected flux as confined flares. Rather, because energy is released more quickly in confined flares, they may accelerate ions and electrons from the Sun’s plasma more efficiently.

Space weather in this solar system and beyond

When it comes to space weather, CMEs and the geomagnetic storms they can cause often get the most attention. This is for a good reason: While it is rare for CMEs to reach Earth, the consequences are dire when they do.

In the worst-case scenario, a geomagnetic storm would damage or destroy electrical transmission equipment, causing blackouts on a large scale. Additionally, such a storm would disrupt certain types of communication, damage satellite hardware, and expose astronauts and high-altitude aviators to potentially lethal radiation. While these are only predictions, evidence for them is based in part on the geomagnetic storm of 1859, which had pronounced effects, causing sparking and fires in telegraph stations.

Research like Kazachenko’s contributes to a broader understanding of how solar flares work, which may one day allow scientists to predict when they will happen more accurately and therefore avoid the worst consequences of a geomagnetic storm by giving people time to take preventative measures. However, her studies have broader implications as well.

A mid-level solar flare captured by NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory June 22, 2015. (Photo: NASA/SDO)

“What happens on other stars?” Kazachenko asks. “Are there flares there? Are there CMEs there? From recent studies, it seems that there are thousands of flares there, but the CMEs, the coronal mass ejections, are very hard to determine.”

While it is possible that stars like the Sun regularly undergo CMEs and that scientists and researchers have simply been unable to detect most of them, current evidence suggests that confined flares play a larger role in the space weather of other solar systems than they do in this one. For this reason, the seemingly less impactful type of solar flare may determine whether exoplanets are habitable—a major interest to astronomers looking for exoplanets that are suitable for colonization.

“So, it’s a very fundamental question, both … for our equipment’s safety, but also for understanding other planets,” Kazachenko says.

Future inquiry

While Kazachenko has discovered a unique property of confined solar flares, there is still work to be done, she says. Her study suggests that confined flares reconnect magnetic fields faster and potentially accelerate charged particles more efficiently than eruptive ones, but the properties of these particles are outside its scope.

There should be a follow-up study, Kazachenko says, “where you really look at the statistical population of particles’ acceleration in both groups of flares … but that’s where I think the future lies: looking not just at one singular event in high detail, but benefiting from these amazing observations that we now have from many different satellites flying there, like the new satellite launched by NASA and the European Space Agency called Solar Orbiter.”

Top image: A solar flare captured by NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory at 8:12 p.m. EDT Oct. 1, 2015. (Photo: NASA/SDO)

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A recent ��ý�Ļ��Ʒ study suggests that confined flares are more efficient at heating plasma and producing ionizing radiation than comparable eruptive flares.

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